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THE SOUTHERN DYNASTIES - ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

(SHATHAVAHANAS, PALLAVAS, CHALUKYAS, CHERAS, CHOLA, PANDYAS, RASHTRAKUTAS AND VIJAYANAGARA & BHAMANI EMPIRE)

Origins, Founders, Facts, Characteristics, Region, Political Role, Administrative Powers, Trade, Economy, Social, Art & Cultures of all Southern Dynasties

Posted By Careericons Team

Introduction to Southern Dynasties :

When Gupta disintegration was complete, the classical patterns of civilization continued to thrive not only in the middle Ganga valley and the kingdoms that emerged on the heels of Gupta demise but also in the Deccan and in South India, which acquired a more prominent place in history.

In fact, from the mid-seventh to mid-thirteenth centuries, regionalism was the dominant theme of the political or dynastic history of South Asia.

Three features commonly characterised the sociopolitical realities of this period.

1. First, the spread of Brahmanical religions was a two-way process in looking at the Sanskritisation of local cults and the localisation of the Brahmanical social order.
2. Second, the ascendancy of the Brahmin priestly and land-owning groups that later dominated regional institutions and political developments.
3. Third, because of the see-sawing of numerous dynasties that had a remarkable ability to survive perennial military attacks, regional kingdoms faced frequent defeats but seldom total annihilation. Peninsular India was involved in an eighth-century tripartite power struggle among the Pallavas (AD 300 - 888) of Kanchipuram, the Chalukyas (AD 550 - 642) of Vatapi and the Pandyas (seventh through tenth centuries) of Madurai. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas, who ruled from AD 753 to 973.

10 IMPORTANT SOUTHERN DYNASTIES & CONTEMPORARY RULERS WITH THEIR SALIENT FEATURES

1. THE SHATHAVAHANAS (230 BC to AD 225)

• The Shathavahanas (also known as the Andhras) are considered to be among the earliest rulers of the Deccan.
• They gained independence after the death of Ashoka in 232 BC; they consolidated their empire and made Prathistana their capital.
• Simukha was their founder and was a subordinate of the Mauryan Empire.
• After the downfall of the Mauryans, there was anarchy and the Shathavahanas established a stable government and united the country into a single empire.
• They repulsed all foreign invasions and made the economy sound.
• Many historians believe that it was the Shathavahanas who laid the foundation for the future attainment of a 'Greater India' under the Guptas and Cholas.
• The important rulers of this dynasty were,
  • Simukha - founder, also called Shathavahna in Jain texts;
  • Krishna - contemporary of King Ashoka;
  • Satakarni I - ruled from 184 to 130 bc and was given the title of 'Lord of the South' in many Jain texts;
  • Hala - seventeenth king of this dynasty who invaded Ceylon and married the princess of Ceylon, Leelavati, a matchless beauty;
  • Pulumayi I - son of Hala and Leelavati who ascended the throne and further established the kingdom;
  • Satakarni II - son of queen Gautami Balashree, therefore, also called Gautamiputra Satakarni, ruled from AD 70 to 95.
• His conquest of the Vindhyas in the south gave his kingdom safety from invasions as it was now covered by sea on three sides.
• He earned the title Trisamudratoyapithavahana, (meaning who rules from the horse which has bathed in the three seas); Pulumayi II - succeeded Gautamiputra and ruled from AD 130 to 145.
• The coins issued during his reign show the powerful Andhra empire; Pulumayi III - the last powerful Andhra king, ruled from AD 166 to 175; Yajnashathakarni - was the last king who ruled from AD 175 to 225.
• Mention of the Shathavahana Dynasty was lost in obscurity with the rise of powers such as the Pallavas in the south, the Kadambas and Gangas in Karnataka and the Abhiharas in Maharashtra.

2. THE PALLAVAS (AD 330 - 796)

With the decline of the Shathavahanas, Shivaskandavarma emerged in the South Indian political scenario. He is supposed to be the founder of the Pallavas. He made Kanchi his capital and extended his kingdom from the Krishna River to the north of the Arabian Sea in the west.

However, some Prakrit edicts suggest that Simhavarman preceded Shivaskandavarman. The Pallavas are mentioned in Samudragupta's pillar, where he is said to have defeated a Pallava king Vishnugopa. The chronology of the Pallava kings is sketchy, but texts suggest that they were powerful between AD 330 and 550 and the noteworthy rulers during this period were Simhavarma I, Sikandavarma I, Veerakurcha, Skandavarma II, Kumaravishnu I, Simhavarma II and Vishnugopa.

After Vishnugopa's defeat to Samudragupta, the Pallavas became weaker and the Cholas and the Kalabhras repeatedly attacked the Pallava kingdom and robbed it of wealth and territories. It was Simhavishnu, son of Simhavarma II, who eventually crushed the Kalabhra dominance in AD 575 and re-established his kingdom. Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms. The Pallava history between AD 600 and 900 is full of accounts of wars between the Pallava and the Chalukya rulers.

Some of the important rulers and their wars with the contemporary Chalukya rulers are:

1. King Mahendravarma (ruled from AD 600 - 630) - fought the first battle between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas and was defeated by Pulakesin II;
2. Narasimhavarma Mamalla - son of Mahendravarma, ruled from AD 630 to 668, remembered as one of the most powerful kings of the Pallava Dynasty, he waged many wars against the Chalukyas and defeated them at Pollahur, Periyala and Surmara. The scene of the battle between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas has been carved on the rocks near the Mallikarjunaswamy temple near Badami.
3. Later, he was defeated by the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya I (son of Pulakesin II). He was succeeded by Mahendravarma II who was killed in a battle against Vikramaditya I. In AD 670, Prameshwaravarma I came to the throne and restricted the advance of Vikramaditya I.

However, the Chalukyas joined hands with the Pandya king Arikesari Maravarma, another prominent enemy of the Pallavas, and defeated Prameshwaravarma I. Prameshwara I died in AD 695 and was succeeded by Narasimhavarma II, a peace-loving ruler.

During his reign, the clashes between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas were few. He is also remembered for building the famous Kailashanatha temple at Kanchi. He died grieving his elder son's accidental death in AD 722. His youngest son, Parameshwaravarma II, came to power in AD 722. He was a patron of the arts but had little interest in fighting.

He proved a very soft opponent to his contemporary Chalukya king, Vikramaditya II, who had the support of the Ganga king, Yereyappa. He died in AD 730 with no heirs to the throne, which left the Pallava kingdom in a state of disarray.

3. AGRAHARAS AND GHATIKAS

Land grants to religious institutions were called Brahmadeya, (donated to Brahmins) Devadana (donated to Gods) and Agrahara (Settlement of priests). Agraharas were among the known educational institutions in medieval southern India. Mahajanas (Bhramins) constituted the core body and administered all affairs of the agrahara.

The earliest agrahara in medieval Karnataka appears to be that of Talagunda or Sthanakundur (in present-day Shimoga district) were centres of known agrahara of medieval Karnataka. An inscription mentions ancestors of Varmana (or Mayurasharman, founder of the Kadamba dynasty), who resettled a group of learned brahmins from Ahichchatra, at Sthanakundur to initiate an agrahara in 350 BC.

Ghatikas were also institutions of advanced learning in mediaeval Karnataka but these were attached to the temples. Inscription of Kakusthavarman's Talagunda mentions ghatika was already instituted in Kanci (a big cultural centre in that period) during the earlier half of the fourth century AD. An inscription of Chalukya Vikramaditya II of Badami, at Kanci, refers to the 'Mahajanas of a Ghatika'.

Since ghatika and agrahara were interrelated in the way described earlier, it is possible that the mahajanas administered ghatikas also. The institution seems to have enjoyed great popularity and high esteem up to about the 15th century AD. Ayyavole (merchant guilds of Karnataka) established sixty-four ghatikasthanas spreading from Karnataka into Tamilnadu, and some regions of contemporary Gujarat and Andhra. Nandivarma II came to power after some fighting for the throne among relatives and officials of the kingdom.

He waged war against the Pandyas and crushed them as they got no support from the Chalukyas during this war. Instead, the Chalukya king Keertivarma (son of Vikramaditya II) waited for the defeat of the Pandyas at the hands of Pallavas, and immediately after the waged war against the wartorn Pallava army and defeated it.

However, Nandivarma married the Rashtrakuta princess Reetadevi and re-established the Pallava kingdom. He was succeeded by Dantiverma (AD 796 - 846) who ruled for 54 long years. Dantiverma was defeated by the Rastravita king, Dantidurga and subsequently by the Pandyas.

He was succeeded by Nandivarma III in AD 846. Accounts in the Tamil book Nandikkalubalakam say that the Pallava kings who followed were powerful. Nandivarma III was succeeded by Nrupatungavarma, who had two brothers, Aparajitavarma and Kampavarma. The Chola king provoked Aprajitananda and supported him to wage a civil war in the Pallava kingdom. With the help of the Cholas, Aprajitananda captured the throne but had to pay heavy costs to the Cholas for their help.

Later, incompetent kings and political instability reduced the Pallavas to a petty kingdom. This brought the Cholas to a formidable position on the South Indian political stage.

4. THE CHALUKYAS (AD 535 - 1190)

The history of Chalukyas, the Karnataka rulers, can be classified into three eras:

1. Early Western Era (sixth to eighth-century ad), known as the Chalukyas of Badami;
2. Later Western Era (seventh to twelfth-century ad), the Chalukyas of Kalyani;
3. Eastern Chalukya era (seventh to twelfth-century ad), the Chalukyas of Vengi.

The Chinese traveller, Hieun Tsang, gives an elaborate account of Karnataka's Chalukyas in his travelogue. The famous rulers of this dynasty were Pulkeshin I (AD 543 - 567), who was the first independent ruler of Badami with Vatapi in Bijapur as his capital. Kirthivarma I (AD 566 - 596) succeeded him on the throne. When he died, the heir to the throne Prince Pulakesin II was just a baby and so the king's brother Mangalesha (AD 597 - 610) was crowned as the caretaker ruler.

Over the years, he made many attempts to kill the prince but was ultimately killed by the prince and his friends. Pulakesin II (AD 610 - 642), the grandson of Pulakesin I, was a contemporary of Harshavardhana and the most famous of the Chalukyan kings. He increased his kingdom by annexing the entire Andhra kingdom. His reign is remembered as the greatest period in the history of Karnataka. He defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada. However, later the Pallava king Narsimhavarman attacked Pulakesin II in AD 642 and captured his capital city Vatapi.

Later, the Chalukya rulers succumbed to attacks by the neighbouring kingdoms. The kingdom rose to power again under the leadership of Vikramaditya I (AD 655 - 681), who defeated his contemporary Pandya, Pallava, Chola and Kerala kings to establish the supremacy of the Chalukyan Empire in the region. He was succeeded by his son Vinayaditya (AD 681 - 696) who was an able administrator. He had many victories to his account, prominent among them were those against Yashovarma (king of Kanauj).

He was succeeded by his son Vijayaditya (AD 696 - 733), who was in time succeeded by his son Vikramaditya II (AD 733 - 745) who came to the throne and defeated the Pallava king Nandivarma II to capture a major portion of the Pallava kingdom.

However, Vikramaditya II's son Kirtivarma II (AD 745) was disposed of by the Rastrakuta ruler, Dantidurga, who established the Rashtrakuta Dynasty as a force to reckon with in Karnataka's political scenario. About 200 years later, the Chalukya Dynasty was revived in 973. During this period Vikramaditya VI (AD 1076 - 1189) arose as the greatest king. Bhilhana and Vijnaneswara were important writers during his period.

5. THE CHERAS

• Cheras were one of the historic Tamil chiefdoms of southern India, which controlled the middle Cauvery River valley.
• It first rose sometime after the third century BC, with Karuvur-Vanchi as its inland political centre and Muchiri (Cranganore) on the Kerala coast as its port of trade, where merchants exchanged pepper for gold and wine from the Roman Empire.
• The Cheras exercised a clan rule under different lineages. Its rulers apparently fought intertribal conflicts with the Cholas and Pandyas and subjugated minor chiefs of the Velir clan.
• The Chera kingdom of Makotai was established in the ninth century AD in the Periyar valley of Kerala, with Makotaipuram (Kodungallur) and Quilon as its first and second capital.
• The kingdom acquired an agrarian base through land grants to Brahmins and to Brahmin institutions, such as the temples of Shiva and Vishnu. Trading ventures with Arab and Jewish lands provided commercial resources.
• Contemporary texts give an account of the ruling dynasty's legendary origins and history. Makotai was supposedly hostile to the Pandyas but friendly with the Mushakas of Kerala.
• Despite a series of defensive wars, constant invasions by the Cholas of Tanjavur led to the disintegration of the Makotai kingdom by the early twelfth century AD.

6. THE CHOLA DYNASTY (AD 850 - 1310)

This Tamil Dynasty ruled over Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka with Tanjore as their capital. The early Chola rulers were Karikala Cholas who ruled in the second-century AD. But after them, the Chola Dynasty remained in the dark corners of the South Indian political scene for centuries before surfacing again when, in AD 850, Vijayalaya captured Tanjore during the Pandya - Pallava wars. To commemorate his accession, he built a temple at Tanjore.

The king was the central head who was helped by a council of ministers, but the administration was democratic. Land revenue and trade tax were the main sources of income. Society was divided into Brahmins and Non-Brahmins. The temple was the cultural and social centre, where art and literature flourished. The Brihadeswara (Shiva) temple at Tanjore was built by Rajaraja I.

The giant statue of Gomateswara at Shravanabelagola was built during this period. His son Aditya I (AD 871 - 901) succeeded him on the throne. Aditya died in AD 907 leaving the throne to his son Parantaka I (AD 907 - 955) who was the king for the next 48 years. But it was Rajaraja I (AD 985 - 1014) who was the founder of the newly organised Chola kingdom. He snatched back the lost territories from the Rashtrakutas to become the most powerful of the Chola rulers. Rajendra Chola (AD 1012 - 1044), son of Rajaraja I, was an important ruler of this dynasty who conquered Orissa, Bengal, Burma, Ceylon, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The Chola Dynasty was at its zenith during his reign. Other important rulers of this dynasty were,

1. Rajadhi Raja I (AD 1044 - 1052);
2. Rajendra II (AD 1052 - 1064);
3. Veera Rajendra (AD 1064 - 1069);
4. Kulottunga I (AD 1069 - 1120);
5. Vikramachola (AD 1118 - 1135);
6. Kullottunga II (AD 1133 - 1150);
7. Raja Raja II (AD 1146 - 1173);
8. Rajadhiraja II (AD 1173 - 1178);
9. Kulottunga III (AD 1178 - 1216) and
10. Raja Raja III (AD 1216 - 1246).

The last ruler of the Chola Dynasty was Rajendra III (AD 1246 - 1279). He was a weak ruler who surrendered to the Pandyas. Later, Malik Kafur invaded this Tamil state in AD 1310 and extinguished the Chola Empire.

The Chola Empire was divided into nine Mandalams (or provinces) and each mandalam was divided into Valandus (or districts). Valanadu constituted of Nadus (or villages) and Taniyurs (or large towns). Brahmadeya were the land granted by Chola kings to Brahmins (villages granted to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmin). A Sabha (an assembly of prominent Brahmin landholders) administered all Brahmadeyas. Vishti or the right to extract forced labour was also granted to Brahmadeyas Brahmins which meant peasants and artisans were to oblige them with free labour.

This resulted in the curtailment of land rights to normal peasant and their status was demoted as ardhikas (or sharecroppers). Nagarams (associations of traders) administered the Taniyurs and smaller towns. Nadus were administered by rich peasants of the Vellala caste, under the supervision of the Chola government, for activities like collection of taxes, dispensing justice, settling disputes, keeping land records, etc.

Sabha had separate committees looking after functions like irrigation, gardens, temples, etc. Nadus later evolved as autonomous peasant regions with agricultural production getting professionally controlled by the nattars.

7. PANDAYAN RULERS

• Pandya rulers exercised a clan rule under several lineages, each bearing Tamil names ending with suffixes such as Valuti and Cheliyan.
• The Pandyas acquired their resources in intertribal conflicts with the Cheras and Cholas, and luxury goods from their maritime trade with countries farther west.
• The Pandyas founded a Tamil literary academy called the Sangam, at Madurai.
• They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronised the Brahmin priests.
• Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.
• The Pandyas re-emerged as a territorial monarchy in the late sixth century AD.
• They adopted Brahminical socio-political institutions based on Sanskrit cultural norms and built up an agrarian base through land grants to Brahmins and temples of Shiva and Vishnu.
• They vied with the Pallava Dynasty of Kanchipuram for dominance over the Cauvery delta.
• After military defeats, they declined with the rise of the Cholas in the late ninth century.
• The Pandyas re-established their power by defeating the Cholas in the early thirteenth century, and a Pandya lineage occupied the Kongu region by the end of that century.
• Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, visited the Pandya region in the late thirteenth century.
• The later Pandya rulers continued to promote Brahminical traditions and adopted Sanskritic titles such as Maravarman and Jatavarman.
• Throughout their history, the Pandyas had close interaction with the rulers of Sri Lanka (Ceylon).

8. RASHTRAKUTAS (AD 753 - 973)

The Rashtrakutas were descendants of the nobles who governed under the Andhras. They were followers of Jainism. It is assumed that no other dynasty of Karnataka, before or after, ruled over such a vast empire as the Rashtrakutas. Dantidurga (AD 735 - 756) established this kingdom.

His ancestors were subordinates of the Chalukyas. They overthrew the Chalukyas and ruled up to AD 973. Dantidurga was succeeded by his son Krishna I (AD 756 - 774). Krishna I am credited to have built the Kailasa temple at Ellora. He is also said to have totally eclipsed the contemporary Chalukya rulers.

Other kings of this dynasty were,

1. Govinda II (AD 774 - 780),
2. Dhruva (AD 780 - 790),
3. Govinda III (AD 793 - 814) and
4. Amoghavarsha Nrupatunga I (AD 814 - 887).

The extent of the Amoghavarsa's Empire can be calculated from the accounts of the Arabian traveller, Sulaiman, who visited his court in AD 851 and wrote in his book 'His kingdom was one of the four great empires of the world at that time'. (The other empires he mentioned were the Roman Empire, the Chinese Empire and the Empire of the Khalif of Baghdad).

Later Rashtrakuta rulers included Krishna II (AD 880 - 914); Indra III (AD 914 - 929); Amoghavarsha II (AD 929 - 930); Govinda VI (AD 930 - 935); Krishna III (AD 939 - 967) and Khottiga (AD 967 - 972). The later Rashtrakutas could not keep pace with the rising Chalukyas of Vatapi. The Chalukyas under Tailapa II overthrew the last Rashtrakuta king Karka II in AD 973 and laid the foundations of the Chalukyas of Kalyani.

9. VIJAYANAGARA KINGDOM (1336 - 1646)

Vijayanagara Empire, in the Deccan Plateau region, was established by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of the Sangama Dynasty in 1336 CE. This empire (1336 - 1646 CE) suffered a major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. After this, its power started declining.

This empire had seen the golden period of its time. The capital city of this empire was Vijayanagara. At present, the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire can be found at Hampi which is a world heritage site in Karnatka (India). The history of this empire can be traced from the local literature as well as from the writings of the European travellers like Domingo Paes, Niccola Da Conti etc.

This empire's power and wealth can also be seen from the archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara. Another name which is used in many other inscriptions was the Karnata Empire.

1. Sangama Dynasty (1336 - 1485),
2. Saluva Dynasty (1485 - 1491),
3. Tuluva Dynasty (1971 - 1542) and
4. Aravidu Dynasty (1542 - 1646)

They ruled over the Vijayanagara Empire. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. During his period, the empire dominated all of southern India and fought off invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in eastern Deccan including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the South.

The empire went into a slow decline regionally, although trade with the Portuguese continued and the British were given a land grant for the establishment of Chennai. The Empire was finally conquered by the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golkonda. The largest feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire - the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayakas of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, and Nayaks of Chittradurga declared independence and went on to have an important impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.

10. BAHAMANI SULTANATE (1347-1527)

The Bahmani Sultanate was a Persianised Muslim state of the Deccan in South India and one of the major medieval Indian kingdoms.

Hasan Gangu Bahmani was the founder of the Bahmani Kingdom. He was a Turkish officer of Devagiri. in 1347 A.D. He established the independent Bahmani kingdom. His kingdom stretched from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, including the whole of Deccan up to the river Krishna with its capital at Gulbarga.

Rulers of the Bahmani Kingdom,

1. Muhammad Shah-I (1358-1377.A.D.)
2. Muhammad Shah-ll (1378-1397.A.D.)
3. Feroz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422 A.D.)
4. Ahmad Shah (1422-1435 A.D.) &
5. Muhammad Shah-lll (1463-1482 A.D.)

Bahmani Kingdom disintegrated into five kingdoms namely:

1. Bijapur,
2. Ahmednagar,
3. Bera,
4. Golconda, &
5. Bidar.

Zafar Khan, a former provincial governor under the Tughlaqs, revolted against his Turkish overlord and proclaimed himself sultan, taking the title Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah in 1347.

The Bahmani Sultanate, located in the northern Deccan, lasted for almost two centuries until it fragmented into five smaller states in 1527. The Bahmani Sultanate adopted the patterns established by the Delhi overlords in tax collection and administration, but its downfall was caused in large measure by the competition and hatred between the Deccan (domiciled Muslim immigrants and local converts) and the Paradesi (foreigners or officials in temporary service).

The Bahmani Sultanate initiated a process of cultural synthesis, which is visible in Hyderabad, where cultural flowering is still expressed in vigorous schools of Deccan architecture and painting.

The decline of the Bahmani Kingdom

There was a constant war between the Bahmani and Vijayanagar rulers. Inefficient and weak successors after Muhammad Shah III. The rivalry between the Bahmani rulers and foreign nobles.

Social Features of Southern Dynasties

• Despite inter-regional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries.
• The absence of a highly centralised government was associated with the corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts.
• Extensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the Arabs on the west coast and with Southeast Asia.
• Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in south-east Asia, where the local elite selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature and social customs.

Religion Features of Southern Dynasties

• The inter-dynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the Deccan and South India patronised all three religions—Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism.
• The religions vied with each other for royal favour, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders even today.
• The cave temples of Elephanta Island (near Mumbai), Ajanta and Ellora (in Maharashtra) and structural temples of Kanchipuram (in Tamil Nadu) are enduring legacies of the otherwise warring regional rulers.
• By the mid-seventh century, Buddhism and Jainism began to decline as sectarian Hindu devotional cults of Shiva and Vishnu vigorously competed for popular support.

Elephanta Caves

• These are a complex of six rock-cut temples on the Island of Elephanta, or Gharapuri, in the Mumbai harbour.
• They were begun in the middle of the sixth century, by either the Traikutaka or Kalachuri dynasties of Maharashtra, and more were added between the eighth and tenth centuries by the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.
• Rather than being constructed from separate parts, they are, like the temples at Ellora, sculpted out of solid rock. The centrepiece of the group is a large temple of Shiva, some 40 m (130 ft) long, 37 m (123 ft) wide and 5 m (18 ft) high.
• It's a ceiling, supported by rows of pillars, was originally decorated with frescoes and on its walls is a series of panels representing the many aspects of Shiva:
  • As Nataraja, Lord of the Cosmic Dance;
  • As Yageshvara, Lord of the Yogis;
  • Slaying the demon Andhaka;
  • Marrying Parvati and
  • Restraining the waters of the Ganga.
• The focal point of the temple is the Maheshmurti (or Trimurti), a three-headed bust representing Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the preserver and Shiva as the destroyer.

Art and Literature of Southern Dynasties:

Although Sanskrit was the language of learning and theology in South India, as it was in the north, the growth of the bhakti (devotional) movements enhanced the crystallisation of vernacular literature in all four major Dravidian languages:

1. Tamil,
2. Telugu,
3. Malayalam and
4. Kannada;

they often borrowed themes and vocabulary from Sanskrit but preserved much of the local cultural lore.

Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems, Silappatikaram (Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai (Jewelled Belt); the body of Shaivite and Vaishnavite—Hindu devotional movements—devotional literature and the reworking of the Ramayana by Kamban in the twelfth century.

A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India's history throughout the centuries.

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